Author: Eshwar Cherkuri

📍Las Positas College

Across 8,885 speaking characters studied in popular movies and TV series, there were nearly 90 non-muslim characters for every 1 muslim character, with no real progress in representation over time (USC Annenberg Inclusion Initiative). Even when Muslim characters appeared in popular television, they were often pigeon holed into characters who displayed violent or extremist traits, which made people develop a negative preconceived notion about the minority group as a whole due to the repeated exposure of stereotyped archetypes for the Islamic minority. After 9/11, Hollywood heavily utilized the Manichean plotline, framing movies as a battle between “good and evil,” which heavily reinforced public fear and allowed politicians to utilize the sentiment to justify aggressive U.S foreign policies against the Middle East (Tajalle). While the United States is portrayed as a country that values diversity, freedom, and democracy, the entertainment industry in the country consistently vilifies Islamic communities, showing the discrepancies between the values the country portrays and the actions it commits. Of Memory and Our Democracy states how collective memory can be distorted and warp democracy itself, bending values such as justice and equality into methods of subtle exclusion. Rather than fostering democracy, post-9/11 Hollywood contributed to a false collective memory that enabled the targeting of Muslims through the portrayal of protecting the country through patriotic values.

Orientalism and “Othering”

Hollywood’s action and thriller films throughout the nineteenth century persistently portrayed Middle Eastern characters as violent extremists, shown by many films like American Sniper, television series 24, and Homeland, repeatedly casting them as violent threats, which solidified that character archetype for the whole minority in the American media (Gandhi). The misrepresentation of Muslim people in the media has been prevalent throughout Hollywood’s depiction of Middle Eastern culture from the 20th century to the present. For example, films like The Mummy (1932) contributed to the establishment of early tropes, depicting ancient Egyptians and Middle Eastern characters as barbaric, mystical, and inherently dangerous, often conflating their distinct cultures and religions into a single, fearful ‘other’ (Tajalle). This representation of the culture as so mystical and different from American media culture was often utilized by Hollywood to drive up movie sales through profiting off the national fear felt by the public, which had negative consequences in creating an image of Middle Eastern people as really different and inferior to White American people. This amplified the sense of superiority that White Americans felt against the Middle Eastern people and helped the American public turn a blind eye to the policies that actively targeted this minority group. Another example includes Disney’s Aladdin in 1992, while being a seemingly lighthearted children’s film, reinforced some of these stereotypes by portraying a fictional Middle Eastern city filled with exotic imagery, which continued the perpetuation of the idea that “Orient” was a land of magic and mystery, which often flattened cultural and religious differences to be palatable to White audiences even if it had harmful impacts of how people perceived the culture.

Furthermore, post 9/11 films like American Sniper (2014) more violently depicted Middle Eastern characters as hostile and ruthless, with little context, contributing to the “Muslim-as-terrorist” trope that became very prominent in the action/thriller genre (Gandhi). This “othering” went beyond simple misrepresentation, as it purposefully creates an untrue reality that permits the exclusion and marginalization of an entire population. Hollywood fosters a sense of remoteness and distance through “othering”  by depicting Middle Eastern people as essentially different and foreign, which makes it simpler to defend prejudice and violence against them. This othering strategy is frequently carried out by subtle clues and recurrent themes, strengthening unfavorable personality traits against the Middle Eastern minority. According to Dr.Samari, in a poll taken directly after 9/11, 60% of Americans reported unfavorable attitudes towards Muslims in association with violence, radical war, and government.  Samari further stated how the media amplified these portrayals and significantly influenced public opinion against the Middle East and implicitly justifying government intervention in the Middle East, especially in the aftermath of 9/11. 

During the post-9/11 time period, the conflicts and tensions against the Middle East was at its peak, which Hollywood took advantage of, relying on a Manichean plotline against the Middle East, framing both the groups against each other by displaying the Americans as ‘good’ and the Middle East as ‘bad’ (Frago et al.). Utilizing this anti-Middle Eastern sentiment to promote stereotypes, especially in the action and thriller genres, often led to a narrow character personality for Middle Eastern characters as antagonists. The “Arab Villain” trope became common in post-9/11 films and television series like Homeland and Argo, which often depicted Middle Eastern men as inherently violent and prone to terrorism, while Middle Eastern women were marginalized victims needing Western intervention to be protected against the men (Abid Kitchlew, 2025). The oversimplified and often false portrayals of the conflict in the Middle East shown by the films not only reinforce harmful stereotypes but also lead to public support of Western political and military actions within the region. The 9/11 attacks in particular led to a desire to construct plotlines that supported national unity and provided legitimacy for aggression against the Middle East. The geopolitical environment of this time influenced Hollywood filmmaking and reception, establishing a chain reaction in which unfavorable stereotypes were normalized as a result of real-life events and cinematic depictions encouraging one another (Tajalle). With its large audience and cultural influence, Hollywood became a major force in producing narratives that capitalized on the urge for vengeance and a sense of national victimhood felt by most of the country.  As a result, anti-Muslim sentiment became more widely accepted and had a major impact on public opinion and policy.

Cultural flattening and Government/Industry Collaboration

The normalization of violent portrayals of Middle Eastern characters gradually increased throughout the nineteenth century and reached its peak in the era post 9/11. According to Quamar, both pre- and post-9/11 films contribute to a normalized association between Islam and violence, which subtly desensitizes audiences to the dehumanization of Middle Eastern people. This normalization had significant consequences for how people perceive and respond to real-life events, since the violence against Middle Eastern characters was depicted as routine and justified, it decreased empathy and made it easier for the American public to support and endorse discriminatory policies and actions against them. Moreover, Abid Kitchlew, a reporter at Northwestern University in Qatar (2025), explained how these depictions reduce a diverse region and its people into a uniform, often violent people, which diminishes public understanding and empathy towards the group. According to Mirrless (2025), this was a form of propaganda that sacrifices individuality in favor of sensationalism and easily digestible stereotypes, which simplifies the rich and diverse culture of Middle Eastern ethnic groups into a single negative image. These stereotypes and media influence manifest in the American public opinion of the Middle Eastern minority, as a Pew Research public opinion poll, showed how 63% of White Evangelicals and Republicans believe that Islam encourages violence more compared to other faiths; 56% of Republicans believe that Islam contains a significant amount of extremist followers; and 72% of White Evangelicals believe that there was a fundamental incompatibility between Islam and democracy. This shows how cultural flattening is especially harmful for Middle Eastern people as they are reduced to widely known stereotypes, which is detrimental to their individuality, as they are no longer seen as complex human beings with their complex personal experiences, making it easier to dehumanize and justify violence against them.

The close relationship between Hollywood and the U.S. government furthers these problematic narratives,  as it has shown how the government aided in manipulating television scripts to garner support for their policies against the Middle East, even though it led to the unfair spread of hatred against the Middle Eastern ethnic group. According to Mirrlees (2025), over 2,500 U.S military-supported films received Pentagon assistance, often in exchange for favorable portrayals of American soldiers and “demonization” of perceived enemies. This collaboration frequently goes beyond logistical support and dictates how films should be made so that they align with both military recruitment and public relations goals. Riegler (2014) confirms that several script edits, especially for post 9/11 action/thriller films, were common in exchange for access to military equipment and locations, effectively ensuring a positive narrative for U.S. foreign policy objectives. Mirrlees further states how government officials directly worked with Hollywood to align their political agenda through films that spread nationalism and displayed the fight against terrorism through movies as ‘Good vs Evil, ‘ displaying commonly stereotyped muslim characters as terrorists and a patriotic American as the ‘good.’ Ryzik Melena states, “Government officials directly worked with Hollywood to align their political agenda through films that spread nationalism and displayed the fight against terrorism through movies as ‘Good vs Evil.” This shows how these types of Hollywood films were, in a way,  a form of propaganda that resulted from political influences trying to promote a sense of hatred for policy objectives.

Lack of Authentic Representation and Commodification of Identity

Authentic representations of Middle Eastern characters continue to remain rare in mainstream media, since Hollywood frequently prioritizes revenue over genuine narratives, they create token characters with shallow development and stereotypical traits widely recognizable to the broad audience. Token characters often reinforce existing stereotypes rather than create meaningful representation, as they are included in the movie to provide a superficial sense of diversity, but lack depth or complexity that would make their personality believable or even relatable. Selenidiad shows how the media and the entertainment industry commodify minority minority identities for mass appeal, similar to how Hollywood films utilized Middle Eastern culture for profit in films, while displaying the people as violent and inferior to them. Selena was used by the industry to commercialize a part of Latino identity that can be displayed to the masses, even if the representation isn’t as accurate or is restricted. This is similar to the use of one event and the continuous display of a negative image of Muslim representation on Hollywood television, based on a very small radicalized minority.

Societal and Psychological Consequences

The societal and psychological consequences of negative public attitudes and media representations have increased anxiety, fear, and isolation within the Muslim communities, often leading to internalized hatred for their identity, especially among younger Muslim children trying to integrate into society (Samari, 2016). The constant portrayal of these stereotypes can make the Middle Eastern community within the United States feel like they need to conceal their identity or withdraw from social aspects of society due to the active negative perpetuation of their culture. These harmful stereotypes can also lead to a sense of isolation, making it more difficult for Muslim Americans to fully participate in society, especially in aspects such as socializing and employment (Jackson, 2008).  The manifestation of these policies is very prevalent in American politics, like the Muslim travel ban and TSA profiling, which reinforced the sense of marginalization felt by Muslim Americans as they were being persecuted due to their inherent identity, supported by media-driven justifications supporting violence and discrimination experienced by Middle Eastern immigrants. A study by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that Muslim Americans who consume news media more frequently reported higher rates of anxiety, depression, and perceived discrimination compared to those who consume less news. The media’s job was meant to bring awareness and to inform the viewers about factual news from an unbiased perspective, similar to how Hollywood films were meant to be a form of entertainment and a form of media displaying good representation based on accurate film premises not aimed at purposefully or ignorantly portraying a false narrative on a minority group leading to significant long-lasting negative consequences.  

Conclusion:

Growing resistance and the emergence of alternative narratives offer hope for change, even though mainstream media continues to recycle harmful tropes with regularity against the Middle Eastern community. The positive impact of shows like Halal in the Family and characters like Sayid in Superstore, an authentic representation, can challenge stereotypes while pushing a positive new narrative that promotes empathy for the Muslim minority (Woolf, 2022). The work of advocacy from individuals and organizations that promote inclusivity, like the Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC), actively works to include more Muslim-American writers in Hollywood by providing resources, fellowship, and support to promote their careers while actively advocating for the erasure of falsely portrayed stereotyped narratives in Hollywood. According to the Guardian, Riz Ahmed, a famous actor and activist, brought widespread media attention to the tropes against Middle Eastern and Islamic culture by persistently advocating against the use of them and actively advocating against the tropes in his platform. The work of people like Riz Ahmed and Organizations like the MPAC helps raise awareness of the harmful narratives that Hollywood and the media display, while also trying to ensure the authentic representation and diversity within the film industry. Although several Hollywood films and Media portrayals have established the anti-Islamic sentiment, geopolitical tensions, and racism through politics and long-standing cultural differences between the East and the West, coupled with Media, led to the widespread nature of islamophobia throughout the United States. 

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